1941. The Nazi Germans had just invaded the Soviet Union, who had done most
of the fighting on the European front. England was being assaulted by the Blitzkrieg attacks, and the United States suffered a blow at Pearl Harbor.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States, and Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of England, came to the conclusion that they must attack Germany head-on, or face years of endless war.
There were few options for this invasion, which came to be known as “Operation Overlord”. The best chance for success was to invade the beaches of Normandy, the north central beaches of German-occupied France.
However, the forces were sure to meet many obstacles along the way. The German Army had began construction on an Atlantic Wall along the coast of France, which consisted a substantial amount of fortifications built to repel any attack. Armored foxholes were built along the beaches, giving them not only the higher ground from which to fire from, but also protection from the naval artillery. Mined stakes were placed in the surrounding fields and hedgerows to decimate any Allied gliders from landing safely. Minefields and barbed wires lay for the Airborne troops which were dropped inland.
To overcome these challenges, the Allies needed to build a landing craft that would be able to come in quickly and land on the rocky shores of the five beaches that landings were planned for. The landing areas- codenamed Sword, Juno, Gold, Utah, and Omaha Beach- each had their own dangers to consider in the largest naval invasion in the history of humanity.
Enter Andrew Higgins, the man who General Dwight D. Eisenhower would later call “The man who won the war for us. ... If Higgins had not designed and built those LCVPs (his landing craft), we never could have landed over an open beach. The whole strategy of the war would have been different."
Higgins was born in 1886 in Columbus, Nebraksa. In 1906, he left his land of corn to work for a lumber-exporting business in Mobile, Alabama, which led to his eventual aquire of a German-run lumber importing company in New Orleans.
Eventually, in 1922, the farm boy from Nebraska would open his own firm, Higgins Lumber and Export Co. Importing wood from all over the globe, Higgins acquired his own fleet of sailboats, which was said to be the largest registry of the time. He also had his own shipyard in New Orleans, to service his fleet, as well as the tugboats and barges.
In 1926, he constructed what he called the “Eureka” boats, a flat bottomed recessed-propeller boat, to be used in shallow waters along the Mississippi River, where silt and debris threatened regular vessels. It also had what a special bow designed by Higgins, which was referred to as a “spoonbill”. This allowed the boat to quickly land on shore, and back off just as quickly. With development and revisions, Higgins had his boats being able to turn on a dime, and were extremely quick to boot.
With the coming of the Great Depression in the 1930’s, Higgins lost his lumberyard, but he fought tooth and nail in order to keep his pride and joy, Higgins Industries, which was established in 1930. He did business with the US Coast Guard and constructing personal boats for the few that could afford them at the time.
The United States Marine Corp soon expressed interest in his Eureka boat in the late 1930’s. The speed, ability to shore quickly, and unloading abilities all appealed greatly to the Marines. In test runs against Navy designed vehicles, the Eureka boats excelled in all the tests. Some redesigns were needed, including one major change in the unloading procedure. The original design had unloading gear and personel over the sides of the boat, needlessly leaving everyone in the open for enemy attack. After one month, they changed the opening to the bow of the boat, thus keeping the troops as safe as possible, while giving them a straight shot to the objective.
This sealed the deal, and Higgins industries became a massive manufacturer of LCV Landers throughout World War 2, turning out 20,000 until the end of the war.
Once the soldiers beached into battle, however, they needed to move quickly. The German soldiers would be firing fast and safely from protected foxholes. The pride of the German Armor Divisions, the Panzerkampfwagen, or “Panzer”, could easily rush into the battle and quickly defeat the Allied soldiers storming France. The German Luftwaffe, or Air Force, could easily conduct bombing runs on the landing craft.
The one major obstacle that stood in the way of the Allied Forces, however, was the Atlantic Wall. A massive up armoring by the German Third Reich, made specifically for defending France from a beach landing. Millions of mines were set in place, trenches were dug out, underwater mines were set, all to repel the exact attack that the Allied Forces were planning to undertake, and all of these barriers had to be overcome in order to have any hope of reclaiming France. Field Marshall Brooks, the top military advisor to Prime Minister Churchill, came to the realization that these barriers would have to be cleared away rapidly during the strike on France, and gave the responsibility of development to Major General Percy Hobart.
General Hobart was a military engineer, dismissed into retirement early in World War II for his “unconventional” ideas of armored warfare. Hobart followed the writings of B.H. Liddell Hart, a military historian who stood against the idea of direct attacks, favoring ambushes and other surprise attacks, which was in direct opposition of Great Britain’s hard-charging mentality.
Upon discovery of this news, Winston Churchill himself re-enlisted him as a Major General in charge of the 11th Armoured Division, known best as the “Desert Rats”, for their participation in the North African Campaign, and for their involvement in Operation Market Garden. He was assigned to the newly formed 79th (Experimental) Armoured Division Royal Engineers, and set right to work on his creations.
The 79th looked at what the current tanks of the British forces had to offer. Which, following the evacuation of France, was very slim. It had mostly consisted of “Churchill” tanks and American “Sherman” tanks, both of which would offer minimal protection during the D-Day attacks. Hobart and the 79th set out to create tanks specifically to the D-Day invasion. To them, that was the only goal. Without a successful landing, everything else was useless.
One of the first obstacles they covered was the landing. Hobart wanted to create a tank possible of landing without forcing another carrier to transport it. This idea was flirted with in World War I, however the tanks proved to either be too bizarre to be viable, or too small to be of any real benefit to battle. Hobart took the American Sherman tank, waterproofed the lower hull, and added two propellers in the back for propulsion., which was designated the “DD Tank”, the DD standing for Duplex Drive.
One of the earliest ideas for amphibious tanks was to use canvas “skirts” along side the tank itself, which could be easily adapted to existing designs while still being quickly removable once the tank landed. This idea was tested in Portsmouth harbor during WWI, but it was concluded that the skirts only worked well in calm waters, which would not be the suitable adjective for the beaches of Normandy. However, Hobart ended up using the skirts, because of the ease of use, and because any sort of large balloon or pontoon system made the tanks a massive target to the Germans. Hobart used a system of 36 small inflatable tubes, used to give the skirt a solid form, and allowed the DD Tanks to be deployed miles away from the beach. The dual propellers could drive the tank at a speed of 4 knots an hour, (about 7 km/hour), which was more than enough range for the carriers to drop them safely in the middle of the English Channel.
Not surprisingly, the Germans also developed an amphibious tank, built off the Panzer III tank. Their tank, called the Tauchpanzer III, did not float like the DD Tank, but instead sank to the bottom and drove on the sea bed. The Tauchpanzer had a depth limit of 50 feet, and allowed the crew to breathe using a rubber hose, which also fed the engine air.
Now that the actual transportation and landing of Armoured vehicles was covered, Hobart looked to the land dangers.
The best friend of the infantry, besides the weapons they use, is armored tanks. They provide mobile and instant cover from small arms fire, they have massive firepower to support them, and they can clear a way through obstacles like a warm knife through butter.
If tanks are a soldier’s best friend, then land mines are sure to be their worst enemy. Thousands of men lost their limbs or lives to the explosives beneath their legs, and the Allies knew that the Atlantic wall would be fully utilizing them. Hobart devised a way to clear out these wretched devices from the paths of the men.
The previous method of clearing mines away consisted of a group of troops carefully walking through a minefield with metal detectors, and placing flags down in their path to designate a clear path. This was incredibly slow, and also extremely dangerous. Not only that, but it also just marked where mines were placed. The minesweepers did not clear out minefields, this was set aside for after the battle.
Hobart took a Sherman tank and placed a thick steel plating on the front hull. He then attached an assembly of rotating chains on the front, to set off landmines the tank’s path. This tank, codenamed “Crab” was the predecessor to a series of AVRE Tanks, for “Armoured Vehicles, Royal Engineers”. Hobart tried to make as many of these tanks as possible, all with the intent to destroy German defenses, each type with a different attachment, each for a different purpose. All of these tanks had their main turret replaced with a mortar cannon, often referred to as a “flying dustbin”, and all of the AVRE’s had soldiers enter and exit the tank from the sides, not the top as usually required. This would allow the men to enter and exit without creating a large profile on top of the tank, allowing themselves to become an easy target.
Each of the tanks was identified by it’s equipment that it carried, for instance:
- The Bullshorn, which was a small bulldozer, made to dig the ground in front of the tank, to expose and make harmless any land mines, or to clear out barbed wire.
- The Carrot, which was a Sherman tank with a large metal frame attached to the front. A single explosive charge was place on the frame, which would be used to blow through bunker walls safely. The carrot later evolved to a double-explosive frame, known as the “Double Onion.
- The Small Box Girder, which was a 30 foot extendable bridge, able to be deployed within 30 seconds to quickly overcome trenches or other field difficulties.
What was the final results of Hobart’s and Higgins’ genius and hard work? The results are mixed. Americans leaders did not take advantage of Hobart’s creations, even though Hobart promised half of the vehicles to the US forces. General Eisenhower left the decision to General Bradley of the US Army, who delegated the decision to staff officers. None of the designs from the 79th wee used, because the officers feared the vehicles would require extensive retaining of the soldiers, delaying Operation Overlord.
The British forces used all of the Hobart vehicles with mixed results. At Gold Beach, the center of the landing sites for Operation Overlord, 500 British soldiers were killed during the invasion, some of which could have survived, if the amphibious Sherman-DD tanks had arrived on time. At Sword Beach, the Hobart vehicles we used extensively in the invasion of Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, and helped to sucessfully take over Pegasus bridge.
The most violent place to land on D-Day, Omaha Beach, was sucessfully taken by the 1st Infantry, 29th Infantry, and 8 Ranger companies re-directed from the landing at Point-du-Hoc. The landing forces were planning on having a group of the Sherman DD amphibious tanks to land with the first wave, however half of them sank before reaching the beach. This was due mainly to misdeployement of the tanks under less than ideal conditions. The wind, current, and wave size all swamped the crafts, while stranding the crew in the middle of the English Channel.
The second half of DD’s we deployed from 6 kilometers off of Omaha Beach, with hopes they would quickly provide fire support, and help the troops landing to their objective. Unfortunately, the conditions of the channel that day led many DD’s to land far away from their objective, stranding them until much later in the day. If more of the Hobart vehicles had landed on Omaha, one wonders how much lower the 2,400 casualty count would be today.
As for the Higgins boats, nearly everyone used the Higgins Boats, including the British and Canadians. Most of the casualites that resulted from the LCV’s were the result of the Coxswains that piloted them. Some emptied their boats too far off the beach, after hitting sandbars, and the soldiers had to drop their weapons and supplies or drown in the surf. Other coxswains made every effort to land the troops right on the beach with multiple attempts and risking their craft. When used to it’s full potential, the Higgins craft lived up to the idea that it would both land and disembark on shores quickly.
Operation Overlord was, without a doubt, the most important mission the Allied Forces undertook during the whole of World War II. Without men like Andrew Higgins or Major General Hobart, who took it upon themselves to help the men any way they can, it is frightening to think how much different the war would have been. Getting a foothold in France was imperative to defeating the Axis powers, and because of their creations, we were able to complete the mission, and end the bloodiest war humanity has known.
Works Cited
Strahan, Jerry E. “Andrew Jackson Higgins and the Boats that Won World War II” New Orleans: Lousiana State University Press, 1998
Macksey, Kenneth. “Armoured Crusader: The Biography of Major-General Sir Percy “Hobo” Hobart, one of the most influential militart commanders of the Second World War.”
London: Grub Street Publishing, April 2004
Ambrose, Stephen E. “D-Day: June 6th, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II”
New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. June 1995
Giangreco, D.M and Kathryn Moore. “Eyewitness D-Day : Firsthand Accounts from the Landing at Normandy to the Liberation of Paris”. New York: Sterling Publishing, May 2004
Delaforce, Patrick. “CHURCHILL'S SECRET WEAPONS : The Story of Hobart's Funnies”. South Yorkshire. Pen and Sword Books, 2006
Willett, Edward. "Hobart’s Funnies." Edward Willet’s Intergalactic Library”. June 5th, 2001.Regina (Saskatchewan) Leader Post. March 9th, 2006
http://www.edwardwillett.com/Columns/hobartfunnies.htm
Higgins Memorial Project. Jerry and Mary Meyer. August 2003. Cornhusker Power
Goodwill Fund.
March 8th, 2006. http://www.higginsmemorial.com
Vehicles of D-Day
June 6th, 1944
Benjamin Hetrick
US History II (Honors)
Dr. V. Triay
May 10th, 2006
of the fighting on the European front. England was being assaulted by the Blitzkrieg attacks, and the United States suffered a blow at Pearl Harbor.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States, and Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of England, came to the conclusion that they must attack Germany head-on, or face years of endless war.
There were few options for this invasion, which came to be known as “Operation Overlord”. The best chance for success was to invade the beaches of Normandy, the north central beaches of German-occupied France.
However, the forces were sure to meet many obstacles along the way. The German Army had began construction on an Atlantic Wall along the coast of France, which consisted a substantial amount of fortifications built to repel any attack. Armored foxholes were built along the beaches, giving them not only the higher ground from which to fire from, but also protection from the naval artillery. Mined stakes were placed in the surrounding fields and hedgerows to decimate any Allied gliders from landing safely. Minefields and barbed wires lay for the Airborne troops which were dropped inland.
To overcome these challenges, the Allies needed to build a landing craft that would be able to come in quickly and land on the rocky shores of the five beaches that landings were planned for. The landing areas- codenamed Sword, Juno, Gold, Utah, and Omaha Beach- each had their own dangers to consider in the largest naval invasion in the history of humanity.
Enter Andrew Higgins, the man who General Dwight D. Eisenhower would later call “The man who won the war for us. ... If Higgins had not designed and built those LCVPs (his landing craft), we never could have landed over an open beach. The whole strategy of the war would have been different."
Higgins was born in 1886 in Columbus, Nebraksa. In 1906, he left his land of corn to work for a lumber-exporting business in Mobile, Alabama, which led to his eventual aquire of a German-run lumber importing company in New Orleans.
Eventually, in 1922, the farm boy from Nebraska would open his own firm, Higgins Lumber and Export Co. Importing wood from all over the globe, Higgins acquired his own fleet of sailboats, which was said to be the largest registry of the time. He also had his own shipyard in New Orleans, to service his fleet, as well as the tugboats and barges.
In 1926, he constructed what he called the “Eureka” boats, a flat bottomed recessed-propeller boat, to be used in shallow waters along the Mississippi River, where silt and debris threatened regular vessels. It also had what a special bow designed by Higgins, which was referred to as a “spoonbill”. This allowed the boat to quickly land on shore, and back off just as quickly. With development and revisions, Higgins had his boats being able to turn on a dime, and were extremely quick to boot.
With the coming of the Great Depression in the 1930’s, Higgins lost his lumberyard, but he fought tooth and nail in order to keep his pride and joy, Higgins Industries, which was established in 1930. He did business with the US Coast Guard and constructing personal boats for the few that could afford them at the time.
The United States Marine Corp soon expressed interest in his Eureka boat in the late 1930’s. The speed, ability to shore quickly, and unloading abilities all appealed greatly to the Marines. In test runs against Navy designed vehicles, the Eureka boats excelled in all the tests. Some redesigns were needed, including one major change in the unloading procedure. The original design had unloading gear and personel over the sides of the boat, needlessly leaving everyone in the open for enemy attack. After one month, they changed the opening to the bow of the boat, thus keeping the troops as safe as possible, while giving them a straight shot to the objective.
This sealed the deal, and Higgins industries became a massive manufacturer of LCV Landers throughout World War 2, turning out 20,000 until the end of the war.
Once the soldiers beached into battle, however, they needed to move quickly. The German soldiers would be firing fast and safely from protected foxholes. The pride of the German Armor Divisions, the Panzerkampfwagen, or “Panzer”, could easily rush into the battle and quickly defeat the Allied soldiers storming France. The German Luftwaffe, or Air Force, could easily conduct bombing runs on the landing craft.
The one major obstacle that stood in the way of the Allied Forces, however, was the Atlantic Wall. A massive up armoring by the German Third Reich, made specifically for defending France from a beach landing. Millions of mines were set in place, trenches were dug out, underwater mines were set, all to repel the exact attack that the Allied Forces were planning to undertake, and all of these barriers had to be overcome in order to have any hope of reclaiming France. Field Marshall Brooks, the top military advisor to Prime Minister Churchill, came to the realization that these barriers would have to be cleared away rapidly during the strike on France, and gave the responsibility of development to Major General Percy Hobart.
General Hobart was a military engineer, dismissed into retirement early in World War II for his “unconventional” ideas of armored warfare. Hobart followed the writings of B.H. Liddell Hart, a military historian who stood against the idea of direct attacks, favoring ambushes and other surprise attacks, which was in direct opposition of Great Britain’s hard-charging mentality.
Upon discovery of this news, Winston Churchill himself re-enlisted him as a Major General in charge of the 11th Armoured Division, known best as the “Desert Rats”, for their participation in the North African Campaign, and for their involvement in Operation Market Garden. He was assigned to the newly formed 79th (Experimental) Armoured Division Royal Engineers, and set right to work on his creations.
The 79th looked at what the current tanks of the British forces had to offer. Which, following the evacuation of France, was very slim. It had mostly consisted of “Churchill” tanks and American “Sherman” tanks, both of which would offer minimal protection during the D-Day attacks. Hobart and the 79th set out to create tanks specifically to the D-Day invasion. To them, that was the only goal. Without a successful landing, everything else was useless.
One of the first obstacles they covered was the landing. Hobart wanted to create a tank possible of landing without forcing another carrier to transport it. This idea was flirted with in World War I, however the tanks proved to either be too bizarre to be viable, or too small to be of any real benefit to battle. Hobart took the American Sherman tank, waterproofed the lower hull, and added two propellers in the back for propulsion., which was designated the “DD Tank”, the DD standing for Duplex Drive.
One of the earliest ideas for amphibious tanks was to use canvas “skirts” along side the tank itself, which could be easily adapted to existing designs while still being quickly removable once the tank landed. This idea was tested in Portsmouth harbor during WWI, but it was concluded that the skirts only worked well in calm waters, which would not be the suitable adjective for the beaches of Normandy. However, Hobart ended up using the skirts, because of the ease of use, and because any sort of large balloon or pontoon system made the tanks a massive target to the Germans. Hobart used a system of 36 small inflatable tubes, used to give the skirt a solid form, and allowed the DD Tanks to be deployed miles away from the beach. The dual propellers could drive the tank at a speed of 4 knots an hour, (about 7 km/hour), which was more than enough range for the carriers to drop them safely in the middle of the English Channel.
Not surprisingly, the Germans also developed an amphibious tank, built off the Panzer III tank. Their tank, called the Tauchpanzer III, did not float like the DD Tank, but instead sank to the bottom and drove on the sea bed. The Tauchpanzer had a depth limit of 50 feet, and allowed the crew to breathe using a rubber hose, which also fed the engine air.
Now that the actual transportation and landing of Armoured vehicles was covered, Hobart looked to the land dangers.
The best friend of the infantry, besides the weapons they use, is armored tanks. They provide mobile and instant cover from small arms fire, they have massive firepower to support them, and they can clear a way through obstacles like a warm knife through butter.
If tanks are a soldier’s best friend, then land mines are sure to be their worst enemy. Thousands of men lost their limbs or lives to the explosives beneath their legs, and the Allies knew that the Atlantic wall would be fully utilizing them. Hobart devised a way to clear out these wretched devices from the paths of the men.
The previous method of clearing mines away consisted of a group of troops carefully walking through a minefield with metal detectors, and placing flags down in their path to designate a clear path. This was incredibly slow, and also extremely dangerous. Not only that, but it also just marked where mines were placed. The minesweepers did not clear out minefields, this was set aside for after the battle.
Hobart took a Sherman tank and placed a thick steel plating on the front hull. He then attached an assembly of rotating chains on the front, to set off landmines the tank’s path. This tank, codenamed “Crab” was the predecessor to a series of AVRE Tanks, for “Armoured Vehicles, Royal Engineers”. Hobart tried to make as many of these tanks as possible, all with the intent to destroy German defenses, each type with a different attachment, each for a different purpose. All of these tanks had their main turret replaced with a mortar cannon, often referred to as a “flying dustbin”, and all of the AVRE’s had soldiers enter and exit the tank from the sides, not the top as usually required. This would allow the men to enter and exit without creating a large profile on top of the tank, allowing themselves to become an easy target.
Each of the tanks was identified by it’s equipment that it carried, for instance:
- The Bullshorn, which was a small bulldozer, made to dig the ground in front of the tank, to expose and make harmless any land mines, or to clear out barbed wire.
- The Carrot, which was a Sherman tank with a large metal frame attached to the front. A single explosive charge was place on the frame, which would be used to blow through bunker walls safely. The carrot later evolved to a double-explosive frame, known as the “Double Onion.
- The Small Box Girder, which was a 30 foot extendable bridge, able to be deployed within 30 seconds to quickly overcome trenches or other field difficulties.
What was the final results of Hobart’s and Higgins’ genius and hard work? The results are mixed. Americans leaders did not take advantage of Hobart’s creations, even though Hobart promised half of the vehicles to the US forces. General Eisenhower left the decision to General Bradley of the US Army, who delegated the decision to staff officers. None of the designs from the 79th wee used, because the officers feared the vehicles would require extensive retaining of the soldiers, delaying Operation Overlord.
The British forces used all of the Hobart vehicles with mixed results. At Gold Beach, the center of the landing sites for Operation Overlord, 500 British soldiers were killed during the invasion, some of which could have survived, if the amphibious Sherman-DD tanks had arrived on time. At Sword Beach, the Hobart vehicles we used extensively in the invasion of Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, and helped to sucessfully take over Pegasus bridge.
The most violent place to land on D-Day, Omaha Beach, was sucessfully taken by the 1st Infantry, 29th Infantry, and 8 Ranger companies re-directed from the landing at Point-du-Hoc. The landing forces were planning on having a group of the Sherman DD amphibious tanks to land with the first wave, however half of them sank before reaching the beach. This was due mainly to misdeployement of the tanks under less than ideal conditions. The wind, current, and wave size all swamped the crafts, while stranding the crew in the middle of the English Channel.
The second half of DD’s we deployed from 6 kilometers off of Omaha Beach, with hopes they would quickly provide fire support, and help the troops landing to their objective. Unfortunately, the conditions of the channel that day led many DD’s to land far away from their objective, stranding them until much later in the day. If more of the Hobart vehicles had landed on Omaha, one wonders how much lower the 2,400 casualty count would be today.
As for the Higgins boats, nearly everyone used the Higgins Boats, including the British and Canadians. Most of the casualites that resulted from the LCV’s were the result of the Coxswains that piloted them. Some emptied their boats too far off the beach, after hitting sandbars, and the soldiers had to drop their weapons and supplies or drown in the surf. Other coxswains made every effort to land the troops right on the beach with multiple attempts and risking their craft. When used to it’s full potential, the Higgins craft lived up to the idea that it would both land and disembark on shores quickly.
Operation Overlord was, without a doubt, the most important mission the Allied Forces undertook during the whole of World War II. Without men like Andrew Higgins or Major General Hobart, who took it upon themselves to help the men any way they can, it is frightening to think how much different the war would have been. Getting a foothold in France was imperative to defeating the Axis powers, and because of their creations, we were able to complete the mission, and end the bloodiest war humanity has known.
Works Cited
Strahan, Jerry E. “Andrew Jackson Higgins and the Boats that Won World War II” New Orleans: Lousiana State University Press, 1998
Macksey, Kenneth. “Armoured Crusader: The Biography of Major-General Sir Percy “Hobo” Hobart, one of the most influential militart commanders of the Second World War.”
London: Grub Street Publishing, April 2004
Ambrose, Stephen E. “D-Day: June 6th, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II”
New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc. June 1995
Giangreco, D.M and Kathryn Moore. “Eyewitness D-Day : Firsthand Accounts from the Landing at Normandy to the Liberation of Paris”. New York: Sterling Publishing, May 2004
Delaforce, Patrick. “CHURCHILL'S SECRET WEAPONS : The Story of Hobart's Funnies”. South Yorkshire. Pen and Sword Books, 2006
Willett, Edward. "Hobart’s Funnies." Edward Willet’s Intergalactic Library”. June 5th, 2001.Regina (Saskatchewan) Leader Post. March 9th, 2006
http://www.edwardwillett.com/Columns/hobartfunnies.htm
Higgins Memorial Project. Jerry and Mary Meyer. August 2003. Cornhusker Power
Goodwill Fund.
March 8th, 2006. http://www.higginsmemorial.com
Vehicles of D-Day
June 6th, 1944
Benjamin Hetrick
US History II (Honors)
Dr. V. Triay
May 10th, 2006
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